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There are a number of rationales for analyzing gender issues in the context of National Communications (NCs) and  Biennial Update Reports (BURs). Initially, it is important to note that the UNFCCC and the CoP Lima Work Programme  on Gender recognize that all aspects of climate change have gender dimensions. The UNFCCC encourages countries  to integrate gender considerations into specific areas of work on the Convention. This includes NCs, BURs and National  Adaptation Programmes (NAPs). Not all aspects of NC or BUR reporting will require detailed action related to gender, but  situations vary from country to country. An initial gender analysis across all areas—and inclusion of stakeholders who  understand gender issues in relation to their sectors—will allow each country to assess where deeper gender analysis  and action is required to make the overall NC or BUR report more credible, realistic and sustainable.
Figure 1 provides examples of the steps that can be taken and the types of information needed to incorporate gender  into the various stages of NC and BUR preparation processes. The section of the document on ‘Making the Links’ will  elaborate on specific approaches that can be used in relation to the points highlighted in Figure 1.
Key rationales for incorporating gender issues into NCs pertain to increased transparency, improved planning, enhanced  effectiveness and better results. Some of these are immediately apparent as benefits documented in the NC reports;  and some will be more apparent as downstream benefits flowing from gender-responsive NCs and related policies and  plans.
 
 
 
INCREASED TRANSPARENCY
Understanding how both men and women are involved in managing their environments, including what they know,  how they work and how they participate in decision-making, helps to clarify the overall picture of the effects of climate  change on different countries and groups of citizens. 
Figure 2 provides an indication of how information on different gender roles and gender dynamics across social levels  are like pieces of a puzzle; and as puzzle pieces are put in place it is easier to see the bigger picture. Gender-responsive  National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports (BURs) are those that involve a wide range of male and  female stakeholders (not just gender specialists) and include the integration of gender analysis at every stage and in  every sector. This approach creates a more complete and accurate picture of how climate change is affecting a country.  Striving for clarity and transparency is a demonstration of good governance, as it fosters the accountability of NC  processes to all citizens. 
 

Gender analysis can also enrich broader social analysis components of NCs. Depending on whether surveys such as  Demographic and Health Surveys, those on population and housing, or agricultural censuses have been done nationally  or locally, gender analysis methodologies can be adapted to show more detailed information about groups of men and  women by age, ethnicity, geographic area and economic status.4 Box 1 provides an example of how different data sets  can be combined to support climate initiatives and how it can add value and clarity to NCs, making them more useful  for planning and budgeting.
To illustrate how gender-related data and analysis from various sectors can enrich evidence related to NCs,  consider health data and gender analysis compiled in Demographic and Health Surveys (DHS). These surveys  often provide information on how women and men share decision-making, what their workloads are with  respect to caregiving, and how much time they spend in accessing health services. The data is further  disaggregated by age and geographic location so it can be used to identify which groups are most likely to  be impacted by different climate change factors and what health risks they face. As such, it can support the  planning of cross-sector outreach initiatives, such as in the management of insect vectors and/or inundations  caused by sea-level rise or flooding. Combining age, geographic and sex-disaggregated information may  also show that informing men and women of health and climate risks and mitigation efforts may need to be  targeted to different health facilities or programmes, offered at different times of day, and in combination with  different incentives. 
A number of climate change gender action plans, both national and across sectors, identify indicators that  require cross-referencing and disaggregating data by age, sex, geographic location and income levels. For  example, Nepal’s Climate Change Gender Action Plan identifies the need for data banks that specifically  include sex-disaggregated information to clarify women’s and men’s roles, knowledge and responsibilities  and inform water management, forestry and agricultural programmes.
It is important to keep in mind that climate change is also considered to be a human rights issue. National climate change  commitments are therefore also linked to commitments such as those made through the Convention on the Elimination  of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW).5 NCs that include men and women at all levels of the process,  and which incorporate analysis of sex-disaggregated data and gender issues, will be better able to demonstrate linkages  between fulfillment of human rights commitments and results of adaptation and mitigation efforts. Further, bringing  together human rights commitments and gender considerations in the context of NCs will support both environmental  sustainability and social development.
Reflecting the links between climate change and human rights, the Human Rights Council has made multiple resolutions  and statements on human rights and climate change, and on the duty of states to protect men and women, girls and  boys from its devastating impacts. On 6 March 2015, the Council held a full-day discussion on climate change and  human rights. Two in-depth panel discussions noted that impacts of climate change are now, in some cases, exceeding  the ability of states to protect their people and that there is a need for international shared responsibility to protect  people from drought, sea-level rise and climate-driven conflicts. Participants called for human rights dimensions to be  integrated into future outcomes of the Conference of Parties and for improved reporting on climate It is important to  keep in mind that climate change is also considered to be a human rights issue. National climate change commitments  are therefore also linked to commitments such as those made through the Convention on the Elimination of All 
 
Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW). NCs that include men and women at all levels of the process, and  which incorporate analysis of sex-disaggregated data and gender issues, will be better able to demonstrate linkages  between fulfillment of human rights commitments and results of adaptation and mitigation efforts. Further, bringing  together human rights commitments and gender considerations in the context of NCs will support both environmental  sustainability and social development.
Reflecting the links between climate change and human rights, the Human Rights Council has made multiple resolutions  and statements on human rights and climate change, and on the duty of states to protect men and women, girls and  boys from its devastating impacts. On 6 March 2015, the Council held a full-day discussion on climate change and  human rights. Two in-depth panel discussions noted that impacts of climate change are now, in some cases, exceeding  the ability of states to protect their people and that there is a need for international shared responsibility to protect  people from drought, sea-level rise and climate-driven conflicts. Participants called for human rights dimensions to be  integrated into future outcomes of the Conference of Parties and for improved reporting on climate change issues to  the Human Rights Council. All of these considerations have specific gender dimensions. Women and girls are particularly  vulnerable to both the negative impacts of climate change, and violence related to the stress it introduces into families  and societies. In Fiji, the Red Cross observed that rates of violence against women, by their husbands or intimate partners,  increased after several severe weather events happened in 2011 and 2012. During this time, many families suffered from  the loss of their livelihoods and homes, and they faced health crises that escalated household stress. Further research  revealed that women and children faced increased risks of sexual violence when staying in shelters for those displaced  by flooding and high winds. The Red Cross worked with regional specialists to train communities to address violence  against women as part of disaster response. This example illustrates that gender equality and rights to security and  health—along with rights to participation, education, water, food and development—are needed to inform analyses of  the interrelations of climate change, human rights and sustainable development.
IMPROVED PLANNING 
The UNFCCC specifies that National Communications (NCs) are intended to function as both reporting and planning  documents. NC findings and recommendations can guide planning for adaptation measures and the reduction  of greenhouse gas emissions through mitigation efforts. As planning tools, gender-responsive NCs can provide  comprehensive background and baseline information on population groups across sectors. They can also inform the  planning and design of effective implementation processes for INDCs, particularly in relation to disaster preparedness  and climate change adaptation. This gives a better understanding of socio-economic and political contexts and supports  priority-setting (Figure 3). Additionally, gender-responsive planning frameworks are linked to improved implementation  of policies and programmes and higher levels of sustainability. As plans become more informed and specific, budget  accuracy also improves—for example, more information makes it easier to assess allocations for i) capacity-building on  gender, ii) the participation of men and women in climate change actions, and iii) sex-disaggregated data.
ENHANCED EFFECTIVENESS IN IMPLEMENTATION
Involving women and men together in climate change responses supports effective implementation; and recognizing  their different perspectives, concerns and interests serves many purposes. It helps raise awareness of women’s strategic  but often invisible and unpaid roles, across sectors. Recognizing women’s roles and engaging them in climate change  initiatives can then also bring more information and human resources to bear on problems related to climate change.
Gender analysis can reveal nuances in climate change impacts. The range of factors contributing to increased  implementation effectiveness is illustrated in Figure 4. It can also help identify critical indicators and monitoring points.  Women and men often notice different things about water, crops, and plants and animals in the ecosystem because  they use resources and interact with natural systems in different ways. They can therefore be complementary informants  when tracking changes caused by human use of the environment. Women and men may also notice different impacts  related to emissions. Their combined knowledge about energy producing and consuming activities will support more informed decision-making and efficient adjustments in programme priorities and cycles. This will in turn make reporting  on outcomes and impacts of National Communication (NC) recommendations more accurate. Sex-disaggregated data  and gender-linked indicators can also highlight gaps in capacity or knowledge and facilitate involvement of the right  people with the right skills in programmes. Clarifying this information can lead to more collaboration and coordination  with existing gender-specific initiatives—particularly those with the potential to incorporate climate issues into their  designs—and result in cost savings for government and development partners. Consequently, while there are some  additional upfront costs related to capacity development and facilitating inclusion of stakeholders and technical  analysis, expenses for gender-responsive NCs will be offset by more effective implementation of the next generation of  programmes. 
 
NCs that strive to present and analyze sex-disaggregated data from censuses and surveys, and which explain how gender  dynamics impact national circumstances, create a road map for more sustainable development. Similarly, NCs that use  sound information and analysis will resonate more effectively with stakeholders. They will be more relatable to planned  actions and their time, knowledge and energy are more likely to be invested into quality inputs. They are then also more  likely to become informed advocates that can hold decision makers accountable to their commitments. Including both  men and women as advocates for gender-responsive climate change response will increase ownership of initiatives and  foster more efficient and effective programmes.
BETTER RESULTS ACROSS SECTORS
In summary, there are many ways countries can benefit from gender-responsive National Communications (NCs) and  Biennial Update Reports (BURs), as shown in Figure 5. They provide more comprehensive information and analysis as well  as more relevant reflections of the overall status of climate change work in each country. They involve men and women  more equitably in assessments, reporting and action on climate change issues, and provide more specific guidance for  future climate change initiatives.
The success and sustainability of climate change actions depends on the full and equitable participation of all people— male and female, rich and poor, educated and uneducated. When climate change initiatives are targeted at the right  level, with adequate resources and information, there is more long-term commitment to outcomes.  Including women’s knowledge, experience and views into the decision-making process, empowering them to become  leaders in climate adaptation, in the use and production of renewable energy, and in green jobs and businesses will reduce  poverty, improve local economies and ensure better and more equitable local, national and international governance  models. Moreover, producing gender-responsive NCs is a sound economic investment because it can reduce poorly  conceived, incomplete and unfocused programming that wastes human and financial resources.
 
 
MAKING THE LINKS: TOOLS  FOR INTEGRATING GENDER  AND CLIMATE CHANGE
INTEGRATING MEN’S AND WOMEN’S PERSPECTIVES AND KNOWLEDGE INTO  CLIMATE CHANGE PROCESSES 
Effective integration of gender issues into National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports (BURs) is  grounded in the principle of inclusivity and ensuring a complete stocktaking of sector issues and other national  circumstances. This does not mean starting from zero to collect and analyze gender and climate issues. In all countries,  work on gender equality has been ongoing and there is a wealth of existing information and knowledge. However,  much of this information has not been shared across sectors, and progress in the engagement of women in decision
making on climate change has been slow. When striving to make NCs more gender-sensitive, a key challenge is bringing  together the right combinations of people and putting them on a common footing so they can appreciate their shared  interests in sustainable environments and livelihoods. Developing coordinated problem-solving approaches to social,  economic and environmental problems and factoring in the potential contributions of men and women can be critical  to identifying successful adaptation and mitigation strategies.
The following subsections outline criteria and approaches for stakeholder engagement, taking stock of current  circumstances, promoting analysis of gender issues related to climate change and clarifying what is missing and what  needs to be done to support more gender-responsive reporting in NCs and BURs.
STAKEHOLDER ENGAGEMENT
What is it? There are many complexities related to stakeholder engagement in National Communications (NCs) and  Biennial Update Reports (BURs). Lessons learned show that the large number of subprojects and activity areas to be  covered by the report result in confusion, a shortage of representation for all groups, and onerous time requirements.  Finding suitably qualified individuals who can dedicate the time required without causing burnout or fatigue can be an  ongoing challenge. This is especially true with the integration of gender into NC and BUR processes. 
First steps. Management of stakeholders is a task that is often overlooked or not adequately financed. In many cases it  is assumed that stakeholders will just become ‘part of the process’. In fact, processes such as development of NCs and  BURs will be much more effective and produce higher quality results if i) stakeholder engagement is explicitly supported  with a dedicated manager, ii) commitments on all sides are monitored, and iii) progress in participation is tracked and  reported on. If the person or team responsible for stakeholder involvement is not familiar with social- and gender inclusive criteria, maintaining a gender-responsive process will require budgeting for technical assistance.
 
Making it work. To make NCs and BURs gender responsive, it is critical to engage a cross-section of stakeholders,  including men and women from different sectors, interest groups and socio-economic levels. Roles and responsibilities  for thematic working groups and public consultations need to be specified in advance; individuals need to know when  they will be required to participate and how much of their time will be taken up by the process. To clarify all these issues,  initial meetings should focus not only on sharing information about the report preparation process. Rather, they should  take the time to clarify and consider the interests of stakeholders and make sure everyone is clear about what the NC or  BUR process is for, what it can do to meet their interests and what it cannot do. Taking the time and spending the money  to do this initial step will help avoid misplaced expectations that can undermine development of the NC or BUR later in  the process. 
What are the challenges? Many government agencies responsible for gender equality are marginalized in terms of  budget and staff allocations and are overburdened by their own national commitments. Many women’s empowerment  or gender equality non-government organizations have targeted mandates and may not have the confidence or  experience with climate issues that they think is required to participate in the development of UNFCCC reports. Careful  assessment of existing, and available, gender expertise needs to be done at the outset of the process. The ministry or  institution responsible for gender equality cannot be expected to manage this and it must be a responsibility of the  NC National Coordination Committee or equivalent body. Where technical assistance for gender is needed, the senior  managers of the NC process should budget for external assistance or seek support from donors, multilateral agencies,  or international NGOs.
Men and women do not always have equal opportunities to be heard in consultation settings. Introducing  approaches to ensure that everyone is heard is an ‘equity measure’ acknowledging cultural, social, work related or educational barriers to women’s equal participation and developing special measures to facilitate  their contributions. There are many different approaches to support women so they are able to share their  knowledge and expertise. Women’s NGOs and the government ministry responsible for gender equality will  be able to provide advice on nationally specific approaches, but some examples include:
• In formal workshop settings, if there is concern that women will be intimidated to speak freely in front  of men, breaking participants into separate male and female working groups to discuss issues and then  reporting back to share information may highlight additional gender issues.
• Using lessons learned from related processes to demonstrate gender issues by sector—e.g., using National  Adaptation Programme of Action (NAPA) or Nationally Appropriate Mitigation Action (NAMA) reports or  documentation from Reducing Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+) initiatives to  bring forward gender dynamics by sector.
• In community settings, holding meetings at times identified by women as convenient, that is, when they  are most likely to be able to free up some time (e.g., from subsistence activities, cooking, caregiving or paid  work).
• When working with women’s organizations that have little previous experience with climate issues, a pre session can be held to brief them and allow them to discuss key issues in advance of a main meeting,  including how these issues relate to policy, programme or community priorities for gender equality.
• In areas where populations have low levels of education, rapid appraisal techniques can be used to discuss  and graphically explore climate change issues and how they differ between women and men.
 

 
TAKING STOCK OF MEN’S AND WOMEN’S DIFFERENT KNOWLEDGE,  SKILLS AND NEEDS
What is it? Stocktaking is an exercise of scanning and documenting the broad range of information, data, institutions and  situations relevant to the UNFCCC reporting requirements. Stocktaking for the National Communication (NC) or Biennial  Update Report (BUR) processes takes place during the early preparation phase. Stocktaking objectives are to assess and  identify climate change–related activities that are underway, planned or recently completed. Stocktaking is also a preliminary  opportunity to build partnerships across sectors and with multiple interest groups, and to gain an understanding of what  is going on with climate change at different levels, in different sectors and with different social groups. 
Where are stakeholder and stocktaking linkages? Initial stakeholder engagement and cross-sector collaboration is  useful during stocktaking because it facilitates the sharing of data and information on women’s and men’s knowledge  in relation to i) natural resource management, ii) energy production and use, and iii) impacts of climate change. This  information helps to set priorities for the NC or BUR and identify areas where there is a need for further study, better  collection of sex-disaggregated data and improved institutional coordination. Partnerships established during the  stocktaking phase can be the basis for further integration of gender issues into different sections of the report. These can,  for example, include tackling issues related to risk and vulnerability and recommendations for adaptation approaches  that specifically target women, men or mixed groups.
What to look for? Building evidence about men’s and women’s risk factors and relative vulnerability to climate change  and disasters requires qualitative and quantitative sex-disaggregated data. The stocktaking phase of the process  should include documentation of where sex-disaggregated information exists and where there are gaps. National  and international organizations have for many years been documenting anecdotal and qualitative information and  conducting analysis of existing quantitative data and women’s experiences. Exercises like the NC or BUR stocktaking  processes can boost these efforts and concurrently support more comprehensive and credible work on climate change  impacts and responses. 
Identifying the building blocks of the NC or BUR report.Using the stocktaking phase as an entry point for stakeholders  from ministries responsible for gender and for NGOs working on gender equality will help identify the extent of cross sector capacity. Many gender specialists are not fully aware of issues related to climate change impacts and responses.  The stocktaking phase of the NC or BUR can be a preliminary step for assessing where interests overlap; where capacity  exists for gender analysis, environmental management and climate change; and which groups have particular technical  skills and material assets. Careful 

management and tracking of  these issues during stocktaking  can be useful later in the process  to inform indicator development,  monitoring approaches and  programme recommendations  in various sections of the NC or  BUR.
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
GENDER-EQUITABLE DECISION-MAKING APPROACHES
Why is it important? Evidence presented by environment organizations and development partners has led to the  UNFCCC direction that all international bodies established to pursue work on the Convention or the Kyoto Protocol  should have a balance of male and female representatives.13 Further, the report of the Conference of the Parties at its  twentieth session, held in Lima in December 2014, adopted the ‘Lima Work Programme on Gender’, which explicitly  directs national parties to advance gender balance and the participation of women in decision-making about climate  change and to “achieve more gender-responsive climate policy in all relevant activities under the Convention”. These  recommendations include balancing the participation of men and women in the work of parties when they develop  their National Communications (NCs) or Biennial Update Reports (BURs).
Who needs to be involved? In addition to striving for equal representation of women and men in high-level forums and  NC or BUR processes, there is also a need to ensure equity between rural and urban priorities and across different socio economic groups. This means the involvement of women and men living in poverty and other vulnerable situations,  either directly or through advocacy organizations. 
Women in rural areas tend to be more marginalized than urban women and yet they are often key natural resource  managers with particular insight into indicators and the impacts of climate change. They are also often among those  who have begun their own experimentation with adaptation approaches. Consequently, it is important that their  knowledge is brought into policy and decision-making arenas. In many cases, cultural barriers and social norms dictate  that men should act as spokespeople for villages, clans, landowners or families. This is a constraint that needs to be  addressed sensitively but proactively. 
Where do these issues fit in the NC or BUR report? The gender dynamics of decision-making must be discussed in the  National Communication or BUR section on national circumstances along with measures to address barriers to women’s  participation as stakeholders in ongoing climate change responses. Auxiliary reports on specific climate change topics  can elaborate in more detail on gender equality in decision-making and methodologies used to facilitate equity. In  addition, reports can contain an annex to explain efforts to achieve gender equality in decision-making and identify key  issues and indicators by sector. A number of international non-government organizations have been working to reduce  gender barriers to women’s participation in climate change and they can be requested to share lessons learned and act  as facilitators to increase women’s leadership in policymaking and priority-setting.
What are the Benefits? The Global Gender Climate Alliance draws on evidence in UNDP’s 2011 Human Development  Report to demonstrate connections between i) women and men equitably sharing household resources, ii) subsequent  investment in education and health of families, and iii) national economic development. In addition, there is evidence that  having women in leadership benefits environmental policy. Data shows that countries with more women in parliaments  are more likely to set aside protected areas and ratify environmental treaties. Further, data shows that countries with high  levels of gender inequality have higher rates of environmental degradation, including forest depletion and air pollution.14 Recommended steps to achieve gender-equitable decision-making for the NC are shown in Figure 8 and Table 3.
COORDINATING GENDER AND CLIMATE CHANGE MAINSTREAMING EFFORTS
What is it? Mainstreaming—the function of integrating a cross-sectoral issue across the whole of government and into  the work of the private and non-government sectors—is used to promote gender equality and action on environmental  management and climate change. Cross-sector issues, including environment, climate change response and gender  equality, all need integrated, coordinated implementation approaches to be effective. 
What are the challenges? Environmental sustainability and gender equality are both linked to cultural and social  norms, and both are difficult to value and quantify. Consequently, there is a need to develop clear evidence about their  benefits, the real costs of environmental exploitation and gender inequality, and how they are connected to climate  change. Ensuring that sector specialists, the public and decision makers are aware, well informed, and motivated to act  in an integrated manner is a serious challenge. 
Coordinated mainstreaming of climate change and gender equality can provide economies of scale, support improved  results on multiple objectives, promote cost savings at many levels, and provide unanticipated benefits and synergies.  However, if not carefully planned, coordinated mainstreaming can also create overwork, be confusing for decision makers  and cause duplication of effort. Therefore, sound management and planning on how to coordinate is critical. Figure 9  identifies key points where coordination will produce the highest level of value added.
 
UNDERSTANDING GENDER ISSUES BY CLIMATE CHANGE TOPIC 
Reporting to the UNFCCC involves providing information on national circumstances as well as recommendations for  action on specific topic areas including vulnerability and adaptation, mitigation, greenhouse gas inventories, and  technology needs. It is important to recognize that while these topic areas are often discussed separately, they are in  fact interconnected elements of climate change response.
This section is intended to illustrate how gender issues cut across climate change topics by giving examples from the  programme and project level. The examples below could all be included in National Communications (NCs) or Biennial  Update Reports (BURs) to demonstrate how gender dynamics shape national circumstances and affect climate change  impacts and responses.
VULNERABILITY AND ADAPTATION
Climate change exacerbates inequalities. The poor and disempowered become more vulnerable because they have  less influence on decision-making and less economic resources to cushion them from shocks and disruptions to their  immediate environment. There are more women than men among the poor, and globally, women have less political,  social and economic power than men.21 For these reasons it is very important to understand, in each national and local  context, how women are marginalized, how their risk factors differ from men’s, and how women and men can work  together to change social, political and structural norms that contribute to vulnerability.  .
 
In many cases, women and men have similar levels of awareness about climate change. However, because women and  men have different gender roles in agriculture, forestry or fishing, and within the home, they may feel and be impacted  by these changes in different ways. For example, women may be more concerned about the health impacts of clean  water shortages or the difficulty of finding affordable household fuel, and men may be more concerned about a lack  of employment caused by flooding or drought. Depending on the country, women and/or men may be impacted by  higher workloads in agriculture. 
In terms of social perception, women’s and men’s knowledge and experience tend to be valued differently. Women’s  skills, expertise and knowledge of household management, human resource development and food security are often  considered to be ‘natural’ attributes, and of lesser value because they are acquired as a process of socialization and  cultural learning. On the other hand, men’s skills and expertise (for example in construction, forestry or fishing) are seen  as ‘acquired’ through education and employment and are attributed a higher value. Consequently, in climate change  adaptation, there is a risk that women are less likely than men to be recognized as key actors with knowledge assets. This  is exacerbated by the fact that in many societies men are also considered to be the family and community members who  interact more with development professionals and ‘outsiders’. In this role they are likely to assume that their experiences  are representative of their households; this can result in women’s knowledge and skills remaining undocumented.
The combination of these social power dynamics and climate-related changes in labour patterns and gender dynamics  can increase inequalities. Figure 10 identifies some factors that can contribute to the disadvantage and vulnerability  experienced by women.
Gender-responsive adaptation approaches seek to identify and redress existing and potential inequalities by ensuring  women are engaged in all levels of climate change response. Adaptation measures include finding the best ways to  cope with changes that have already happened, reducing risks associated with severe weather events, and incorporating  different technologies to avoid additional negative climate change impacts.
 
Reporting on existing and forthcoming initiatives is a component of the National Communication (NC) and Biennial  Update Report (BUR) stocktaking process, which can be supported through, for example, the engagement of stakeholders  and the review of NAPAs or NAPs, sector and organizational gender action plans to address climate change, private sector initiatives, and urban or community plans. Existing gender situation analyses can assist with valuing women’s  knowledge, skills and expertise. They can also provide evidence and sex-disaggregated data on men’s and women’s  education levels, labour force participation and engagement in specific industrial sectors. Knowing these facts helps  demonstrate why women and men need to be equitably involved in adaptation initiatives. Women’s active involvement  in planning, implementation and monitoring of adaptation initiatives will result in more efficiently implemented, positive  and sustainable results. 
 

Bringing all of the above issues to light in NCs and BURs is critical for multiple reasons. It is important to share information  and experiences so that i) trends and responses can be identified, ii) evidence on gender and climate change can  begin to be collated on a global level and good practices can be identified, and iii) key indicators of risk and triggers of  vulnerability can be agreed on and used to inform improved planning for gender-responsive adaptation capacity across  sectors.
LESSONS LEARNED AND GOOD PRACTICES IN ADAPTATION
NCs are intended to bring together all available information about efforts to implement the UNFCCC. This information  can be drawn from more specific reports and programmes focused on either sectors or topic areas such as adaptation,  mitigation, financing, technological innovation, etc. It can also be drawn from urban or rural initiatives developed by  subnational actors. The examples here show good practice in adaptation initiatives as a primary focus. They also show  how climate change initiatives can have a multiplier effect across sectors.
 
 
MITIGATION
Climate change mitigation refers to efforts to reduce or prevent the emission of greenhouse gases using new technologies  and renewable energies, making older equipment more energy efficient, changing management practices, or changing  consumer behaviour. It can be as large scale as urban planning and infrastructure development, or more basic and  targeted to household-level changes in water or energy use. Mitigation is relevant across many sectors, including  agriculture, forestry, fishing, transport, tourism, infrastructure, industry, foreign investment and business, housing and  land management, and waste management. 
The questions shown in Figure 12 related to men’s and women’s control of resources are influenced by variables such  as social norms about gender roles, differences in education levels, economic status, levels of national development,  geography and culture. As a result, situations will vary from country to country and sometimes even from region to  region within countries. Local gender specialists can support gender analysis of mitigation information, plans and  recommendations. Where local gender specialists are not comfortable to engage in in-depth discussion on technical  mitigation issues, national or international gender and environment specialists can provide coaching and mentoring  and bolster the scientific, environmental and gender analyses. While there are upfront time and cost implications for the  inclusion of gender analysis in mitigation initiatives, gender-responsive planning, programming and implementation  will have long-term benefits and cost savings that more than offset initial investments. These will include more accurate  monitoring, reporting and verification (MRV) outcomes as well as better tracking of social and environmental co-benefits.
The measuring and monitoring of the results and benefits of mitigation efforts is a critical aspect to better understanding  how a country’s interventions are producing the desired effects. In this context, 
the design of MRV systems will help countries develop social context around emission measurement. A contextual  explanation of socio-economic factors such as education levels, poverty and gender dynamics can inform criteria for  sex-disaggregated data on emissions and mitigation strategies across sectors. Where data is not available it should be  identified as a specific gap and priority area for action. Without sex-disaggregated data it will be impossible to measure  if gender-responsive mitigation initiatives are having an impact and to evaluate, adapt and improve those initiatives.  Data and indicators in Figure 13 are just a few examples of data that can support more accurate mitigation assessment
 

LESSONS LEARNED AND GOOD PRACTICES IN MITIGATION
Lessons learned in gender and mitigation are closely linked to the intersections of men, women, technology needs and  greenhouse gas inventories, as discussed in following subsections. These examples from West Africa and Bhutan show  how gender considerations in mitigation can be addressed at regional and national policy levels. Attention to gender  issues in mitigation financing, policy and programme design is demonstrating that well-planned, gender-responsive  initiatives are realistic and can deliver improved results across multiple sectors. Coordination between development  partners and high-level political commitment to ensure gender-specific criteria are in place are important factors for  sustainability. Having indicators and sex-disaggregated data are critical to monitoring results from a gender perspective.
MONITORING, REPORTING AND VERIFICATION 
As noted in the previous section, Monitoring, Reporting and Verification (MRV) is linked to mitigation efforts and  the reduction of GHG emissions. The end purpose of MRV is to determine how well a country is progressing toward  implementation of the UNFCCC. One aspect of the MRV process is collecting information on co-benefits—instances  where one initiative produces benefits across sectors or at multiple levels. Co-benefits may be linked to one or more  areas, including social, gender equality, economic, and institutional benefits. The combination and interlinking of these  co-benefits contributes to sustainable development.
To date, most of the available documentation on gender-responsive MRV processes is in the area of reducing emissions  from deforestation and forest degradation (REDD) and in the analysis of mitigation finance. The United Nations REDD+  programmes and implementing partners have developed guidelines and indicators for women’s full participation as  stakeholders, beneficiaries, and specialists, including in MRV processes26. REDD+ initiatives are also emphasizing that the  engagement of women in measurement, reporting and verification exercises would increase MRV accuracy and facilitate  better ongoing monitoring of co-benefits. 
It is important to note that other programmes and mechanisms have the potential to capture similar information for the  transport and energy sectors. Reporting processes such as National Appropriate Mitigation Actions (NAMAs) and Low  Emission Development Strategies (LEDS) could readily engage women in MRV exercises and report on gender-related  co-benefits if appropriate gender indicators were built into policy design and sex-disaggregated data was collected.
Research done by UNEP in 2013 examined the sustainable development benefits for eight NAMAs. This was also done 
for Clean Development Mechanisms (CDMs). Both these mechanisms are intended to align with national priorities and  policies, and as such they should reflect national commitments to gender equality. The UNEP analysis of NAMAs shows  that only one of eight reports specifically highlighted gender equality as a sustainable development co-benefit that  could be included in MRV reporting. However, social benefits were listed for six of the other seven reports and could be  sex-disaggregated to identify and measure gender equality co-benefits.27 Social co-benefits included improved transit,  reduced pollutions levels, improved health, and increased employment and education opportunities. Steps to increase  the gender responsiveness of MRVs are included in Figure 14 below. These can be elaborated on and linked to national  priorities for gender equality and sustainable development.
LESSONS LEARNED AND GOOD PRACTICES IN MRV
As noted, there is limited documentation on good practices in MRV, but where analysis has been done, key lessons  are emerging. Two prerequisites for gender-responsive MRVs are i) awareness of how development policies, social and  gender dynamics, mitigation programmes, and technical processes such as MRV are linked, and ii) analysis of climate  change and social/gender policy priorities to optimize GHG reductions and concurrently realize social benefits and  gender equality. When these two factors are in place they can drive sex-disaggregated data collection, analysis of issues  and co-benefits, and the design of gender-specific indicators linked to MRV reporting. Demand can be generated at  many levels, separately or simultaneously. For example, development agencies can provide guidelines for integrating  gender into MRV; mitigation-programme funders can create incentives by linking financing for mitigation with reporting  on gender co-benefits across sectors; national ministries for planning and for gender equality can promote gender  equity in MRV training; and local-level projects can be analyzed to demonstrate gender issues and pinpoint where  monitoring and reporting can make gender issues more transparent. 
 
GREENHOUSE GAS INVENTORIES 
There has been limited analysis of how gender issues link to greenhouse gas inventories. Greenhouse gas inventory  processes are highly technical exercises that measure units of emissions and chart projections for future climate change  implications. The GHG emission inventory methodologies are seemingly divorced from the socio-economic drivers and  impacts of emissions. However, in looking at where emissions actually come from and who benefits from the industries,  the technologies and sectors that produce greenhouse gases are an aspect of economic and social justice, sustainable  development, and mitigation efforts. Assessing methodologies to capture GHGs is also a technical exercise but in this  case gender issues come to the surface more readily. For example, it has been shown that men and women, when fully  informed on policy options, can have differing viewpoints on risks, costs and projected benefits associated with GHG  emission reduction technologies. Depending on the male/female balance of power in GHG policy and decision-making  forums, those views are taken more or less into account.28
Basic analysis of GHG inventories should provide cross-references to social variables including gender and poverty, if  possible. It should also highlight how development is burdening or benefiting men and women in different socio economic population groups. This can, in turn, identify or clarify correlations between types of industrial and/or  technological development and gender-equitable, sustainable development. 
At the sector level, for example in urban planning and housing policy, the analysis of work and transport patterns, waste  management, energy and water use, time use by women and men, usage of different physical spaces, and gender  roles can identify distinct emission and mitigation issues. Understanding these differences and integrating them into  policy and planning discussions in National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports (BURs) will lead to a  more accurate assessment of the priorities, costs and benefits of specific technological or infrastructure changes, and  investment decisions. 
Finally, because there has been limited gender analysis of GHG inventory processes it is not possible to say whether  there is or is not a need for more in-depth consideration of gender issues. However, making commitments to bring  more gender balance to scientific teams, raising awareness on GHG inventories among scientists and stakeholders, and  making the inventory process more comprehensible to the public will help identify issues of importance at national and  international levels. The primary consideration is to check for gender-differentiated impacts and ensure that they do not  cause or perpetuate inequalities. 
LESSONS LEARNED AND GOOD PRACTICES IN GHG EMISSIONS TRACKING
Gender analysis of the greenhouse gas inventory processes used to report in NCs and BURs are scarce, but those that  exist are using interesting analytical approaches. Good practice exists in the exploratory research, trialing and testing of  hypotheses and engaging women and men in debate. For example, research is being done on i) how men and women  contribute to climate change through both work and consumption, including through the examination of gender  indicators linked to green industries, and ii) male/female employment, leadership and influence in green industries.29
Exploration of how gender roles are related to emissions in transportation and energy use vary from country to country  but gendered patterns of use are emerging. Men and women use energy for different activities but reliance on specific  emission-producing industrial or agricultural sectors is challenging to disaggregate, as households are the typical unit  of measurement. For example, studies have been done on emissions created from using biomass for cooking, although women cook, all household members eat, so definitive statements about gender are difficult to make. While  the examples below from Nepal and Macedonia are more related to gender analysis of mitigation initiatives, they can  provide a perspective of GHG inventory work with a gender focus. These examples show that women can have a role in  both mitigation and GHG inventory initiatives, as they are the direct beneficiaries of mitigation actions while also having  a potential function in the GHG inventories of the relevant GHG emission sources.
 
TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENTS
Technology needs assessment is a process of examining and prioritizing the introduction of adaptation and mitigation  technology in line with national development goals for socio-economic and environmental sustainability. It incorporates  consideration of technology management, including the development, transfer, adoption and diffusion of technologies  to offset emissions and reduce risks and vulnerabilities.
Technology needs can be very different for men and women because of social norms about who does what work. In  agriculture, the levels of mechanization, the balance of cash crops versus subsistence crops grown, the use of fertilizers from  different sources and waste management from livestock are all issues linked to emissions and types of technology. These  are also examples of agricultural activities where men and women can have specifically assigned roles, have different levels  of control over income and different levels of power to make decisions about investing in technological change. 
Household use of energy for cooking, heating or cooling is more strongly associated with women’s labour than men’s  because of expectations that women will be responsible for the care and management of the home while men spend  more time in paid employment. In some cases, new technologies or ‘green responses’ require women to i) spend  more time on household labour, for example in recycling, reusing materials or conserving a specific resource, or ii) use  innovations that are less efficient, as is the case with solar stoves. In these instances women may not have the additional  time to adopt the technology or to fully adopt the adaptation or mitigation scheme, and there can be negative health,  nutritional or food security impacts for family members and women themselves. 
Additional gender-related considerations in technology needs assessment include i) the different levels of decision making power that men and women have to set public policy, ii) their relative abilities to influence national-level  technology investments, and iii) their influence on who should be engaged to test new technologies in different sectors.30 For example, there may be sector-to-sector gender differences in the trialing of new technologies for power generation,  transport systems, and food production and they may not accurately target women’s and men’s priority needs. For  decision makers and programme designers, it is also important to consider that women and men have different amounts  of time available to participate in community meetings as stakeholders and trainees in new technology. Specific efforts  must be made to address gender-linked constraints and to bring women, or organizations representing women, into  technology needs assessment discussions, decision-making forums and trainings.
 
LESSONS LEARNED AND GOOD PRACTICES IN TECHNOLOGY NEEDS ASSESSMENT
Introduction of appropriate technologies to assist communities to adapt to climate change, or the exchange of a high emission technology for a different, low-emission one, only works when the end user has the skills and willingness to use  it. Technology needs assessments generally recognize this but do not always consider how gender roles and associated  social norms will affect the uptake of each potentially effective technology, or how the benefits will affect men and  women in different ways. Because socio-cultural norms are different from country to country, and between subnational  levels, it is important that stocktaking for the National Communication (NC) or Biennial Update Report (BUR) provides  explanations of gender issues so they can be applied in later phases, such as during technology needs assessments. It  is also important to recognize that coordinated climate change and gender mainstreaming can be used to promote  gender equality by opening doors for women to become more economically active, to benefit from new value chains,  or to work in non-traditional fields and engage more fully in decision-making.
INTEGRATING GENDER IN NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS REPORTING 
National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports (BURs) are expected to report comprehensively on national  progress in implementing the UNFCCC. Integrating gender considerations and analysis into these reporting mechanisms  ensures they provide a holistic picture of socio-economic and environmental elements related to climate change.
Mainstreaming gender into NCs and BURs requires commitment, technical capacity, and funding. Tracking progress over  time in subsequent reports requires identification of gender-linked and/or sex-disaggregated indicators, as illustrated in  Figure 17. The subsections below provide a brief discussion of these points as well as simple frameworks and checklists.
BUILDING COMMITMENT FOR GENDER-RESPONSIVE REPORTING  AT EACH LEVEL OF THE PROCESS
A critical aspect of building commitment is to recognize that integrating gender considerations in National  Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports (BURs) is not just about women, it is about using all available  information to the best advantage of all citizens. Consequently, the responsibility for gender-responsive NCs and BURs  cannot be handed off to a single entity or working group. All working bodies and high-level individuals in the reporting  processes will meet these requirements more readily if their terms of reference specifically include gender analysis  and sex-disaggregated data collection; these can be further rationalized through reference to UNFCCC and CEDAW  commitments to sustainable and just development.
Guidance for developing the NC and BUR reports is extensive and spread out into many documents and handbooks,  which makes drafting the reports a complex and sometimes confusing process requiring considerable time, human  resources, funding and technical assistance. Participants in the survey done prior to developing this toolkit noted that  it is difficult for countries to keep track of all the guidance and directives coming from the UNFCCC, the COP subgroup  meetings, and the proceedings of subsidiary bodies. The survey also highlighted that there is a lack of awareness about  UNFCCC direction on integrating gender into NCs. For reference, a list of COP decisions on gender is included in Figure  18 and links are footnoted here.33
NC and BUR coordination committees, the ministries providing oversight to each process, and thematic working groups  can use this information to guide their decisions. Key stages to plan for gender-responsive reporting are during the  development of institutional arrangements for stakeholder engagement, during budget development, and when  planning the stocktaking, capacity-building and analysis processes associated with the NC or BUR. Development partners,  who support governments as implementing agencies during report preparation, can also build capacity and make  reporting processes more transparent by clearly articulating their own gender policies and identifying what technical  and financial resources are available to make NCs and BURs gender responsive. They can also provide frameworks and/ or checklists to help ensure that the NC or BUR project proposal documents include budget and time allocations related  to balanced stakeholder processes; sex-disaggregated data collection; and gender analysis of national circumstances,  vulnerability and adaptation, GHG inventory issues, and mitigation and technology needs.
 
In addition to alignment with UNFCCC directives for gender-responsive climate change and reporting, high-level  commitment to gender-responsive climate change should be rationalized by practical facts. Foremost among these is  that the integration of gender considerations into NCs and BURs will result in more transparent, effective and sustainable  responses to climate change impacts.
National governments have a key role to play as coordinators of climate change and gender mainstreaming. To be truly  effective, leadership needs to come from the ministerial levels of central government agencies, and men and women in  leadership need to speak out clearly on the benefits of integrating gender and climate change. Further, implementation  and monitoring of gender and climate change integration and reporting needs to be linked to national sustainable  development plans. 
High-level commitment is needed to drive and maintain momentum on gender and climate mainstreaming and  to ensure national exercises like NCs and BURs have the support they need. But it is important to remember that  commitment from all levels of sector ministries and from men and women at the community level is equally important.  Conducting gender and climate change awareness and skill-building with local governments, faith-based organizations,  and local civil society groups will develop an ongoing commitment to programmes and projects. It will also provide  much-needed support for women to act as agents of change alongside the men in their families and communities.  Figure 19 provides suggested steps for building and monitoring commitment to gender-responsive climate change  across levels.
BUDGETING FOR GENDER-RESPONSIVE NATIONAL COMMUNICATIONS Developing priorities and institutional arrangements for National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports  (BURs) has numerous stages and takes place within different groups and subgroups. The previous sections of this toolkit  repeatedly identify the need to ensure that all phases of report development include basic costing and budgeting  exercises to ensure there is adequate financing for i) gender analysis, ii) equitable participation of men and women in  working groups and stakeholder forums, and iii) specific technical assistance where it is required. 
NCs and BURs provide a road map for future work on climate change. Consequently, it is important that budgeting  for gender-responsive report preparation be linked to longer-term planning and programmes. In discussions of the  need to finance gender-responsive climate change reporting it is useful to identify criteria for gender-responsive climate  financing arrangements that are in line with both i) international norms and standards to address women’s human rights,  and ii) national priorities for gender equality and the empowerment of women in leadership, economic development  and environmental management. Governments should discuss how to integrate gender budget considerations in  applications to climate change funds, including for example the Global Environment Facility, the Green Development  Fund, the Clean Development Mechanism, as well as clean technology funds, and forest development and coastal  resource management programmes. Countries can consider that approaches beneficial to women are those that engage  women as decision makers and simultaneously support multiple environmental, economic and social outcomes. These  are often small-scale, locally driven projects, and those delivered by civil society groups with existing commitments  to gender equality. All initiatives should be country-driven and linked to sustainable development policies and their  existing indicators.
 
BUILDING AND USING TECHNICAL CAPACITY FOR GENDER 
ANALYSIS OF CLIMATE CHANGE 
One of the major challenges for developing countries preparing National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update  Reports (BURs) is finding people with the technical capacity to bring together all relevant information, manage  collaborations and institutional arrangements, undertake required analyses, and draft various sections of the reports.  The preparation of these reports is time intensive and requires a major commitment by government staff, development  partners and civil society. 
Integrating gender into climate change reporting is a particular challenge because many environmental specialists may  not be familiar with gender analysis approaches and gender specialists may not have experience in climate change.  In addition, gender specialists at the national level are often heavily committed by obligations to implement national  commitments to gender equality, and to work on women’s economic empowerment and ending violence against  women.
Figure 21 highlights some potential entry points where cost-effective capacity development can be done to support  gender-responsive climate change reporting. Using these entry points to deliver specific skills and competencies will  support the sustainable implementation and monitoring of initiatives resulting from NC and BUR recommendations. 
Figure 22 identifies main focus areas for training and skill-building that can provide long-term support to climate change  initiatives and also support broader social and gender analysis across sectors. It is important to note that capacity  development can be done through a variety or combination of mechanisms, including workshops, secondments,  coaching and mentoring. Capacity development is generally most effective when it is delivered over time or has  some follow-up coaching or collaboration to ensure skills are practiced and polished. Collaboration between resource  ministries and gender ministries can reinforce both coordinated mainstreaming and capacity development.
INTEGRATING GENDER ANALYSIS INTO NC
AND BUR REPORTING FRAMEWORKS
Systematically reporting on gender issues throughout National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports  (BURs) can be done in different ways. For example, gender can be incorporated as an integral consideration in each  section of the report, subsections can specifically identify gender dimensions of each topic area or issue, and there  can be a stand-alone section summarizing gender issues. To date, as countries have given emphasis to gender in their  respective NCs and BURs, they have used a variety of methodologies to integrate gender issues in their reports. 
To make NCs and BURs truly gender responsive, to align with the directives of the UNFCCC to bring gender balance into all  bodies, and to make processes more transparent in relation to gender issues, good practice indicates highlighting gender  issues in relation to each aspect of report preparation. Gender can be integrated into each section based on feedback  from stakeholders, thematic working group identification of specific issues, and analysis of available sex-disaggregated  data. Table 5 provides guidance on how to include gender issues in a way that they can be easily referenced and linked  to evidence and monitoring processes.
 
IDENTIFICATION OF BASIC GENDER INDICATORS TO 
SUPPORT MONITORING AND REPORTING 
Gender indicators measure changes in men and women’s status, access to resources, participation in decision-making,  and other similar variables. Indicators can measure quality or quantity and examples are provided below.
Making sure to include gender indicators in National Communications (NCs) and Biennial Update Reports (BURs) allows  these variables to be tracked over time, commitments to be monitored and changes in gender relations to be measured  in the context of climate change topics such as adaptation, mitigation and technology transfer programmes. This, in  turn, creates evidence that countries can report against in subsequent NCs and BURs, and in topic-specific reporting  against the UNFCCC and other development goals. Further, the creation of evidence over time will help countries  leverage financial support for future gender-responsive climate initiatives. Recommended criteria for gender indicators  are shown in the figure below.
As noted above, indicators can track different things, and they can also track change at different levels, including impacts  over time, the effects of a specific intervention, performance levels of individuals or groups, or the efficiency of an  intervention. For example, indicators on the sale of non-timber forest products can indicate the effects of gender responsive forestry projects on men’s and women’s economic status relative to each other. Concurrently, indicators  measuring women’s overall agricultural income can show impacts of sea-level rise and the salinization of water tables in  areas where women grow crops. In some cases, direct indicators may not be available and indirect or proxy indicators  may be used as long as they are fully explained. For example, countries may not have data on how many women and  men are business owners, but they may have census data on those who report being self-employed. This can be a rough  indirect indicator of business ownership and can be used to assess capacity for entrepreneurship in the introduction of  new energy technologies. 
The following figure outlines more sample indictors to demonstrate how they can vary and what they are intended to  measure.
There are a considerable number of resources available to support the development of gender-responsive indicators  at different levels, including some that focus specifically on gender and climate change indicators. The ‘Additional  References’ section at the end of this toolkit provides further information.
Indicators on their own are useful, but to support strategic improvement in climate change responses, monitoring and  evaluation of those indicators must be entrenched in project documents. They must appear in logical frameworks and  be regularly monitored and reported on. Further, reporting on gender indicators should be linked to sector and national  strategic plans and used to influence decision-making and financing for gender-responsive climate change.